At Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, my colleague Rick Relyea and his lab are working to quantify how increases in salinity affect ecosystems. Not surprisingly, they have found that high salinity has negative impacts on many species. They have also discovered that some species have the ability to cope with these increases in salinity.
But this ability comes at a price. In a recent study, Rick and I analyzed how a common species of zooplankton, Daphniapulex, adapts to increasing levels of road salt. We found that this exposure affected an important biological rhythm: The circadian clock, which may govern Daphnia‘s feeding and predation avoidance behaviors. Since many fish prey on Daphnia, this effect could have ripples throughout entire ecosystems. Our work also raises questions about whether salt, or other environmental pollutants, could have similar impacts on the human circadian clock.
In studying how road salt affects aquatic ecosystems, the Relyea lab showed that Daphniapulex can adapt to handle moderate exposures in as little as two and a half months. These levels ranged from 15 milligrams of chloride (a building block of salt) per liter of water to a high of 1,000 milligrams per liter – a level found in highly contaminated lakes in North America.
However, an organism’s ability to adapt to something in its environment can also be accompanied by negative trade-offs. My lab’s collaboration with Rick’s began in an effort to identify these trade-offs in salt-adapted Daphnia.
In my lab, we study how our circadian rhythms allow us to keep track of time. We investigate how the molecules in our cells work together to tick like a clock. These circadian rhythms allow an organism to anticipate 24-hour oscillations in its environment, such as changes from light (daytime) to dark (nighttime), and are essential to an organism’s fitness.
Rick and I hypothesized that adaptation to high salinity could disrupt Daphnia’scircadian rhythms based on recent evidence showing that other environmental contaminants can disrupt circadian behavior. One important behavior in Daphniathat may be controlled by the circadian clock is the diel vertical migration – the largest daily biomass migration on Earth, which occurs in oceans, bays and lakes. Plankton and fish migrate down to deeper water during the day to avoid predators and sun damage, and back up toward the surface at night to feed.
Echogram illustrating the ascending and descending phases of diel vertical migration, in which organisms ascend and descend through the water column. The color scale reflects acoustic scattering by concentrations of organisms at different depths. DEEP SEARCH – BOEM, USGS, NOAA
Given what we know about circadian function, it would be logical to assume that exposure to pollution would not affect an organism’s circadian rhythms. While circadian clocks can incorporate environmental information to tell the time of day, they are heavily buffered against most environmental effects.
To understand the importance of this buffering, imagine that the timing of an organism’s day length responded to environmental temperature. Heat speeds up molecular reactions, so on hot days the organism’s 24-hour rhythm could become 20 hours, and on cold days it might become 28 hours. In essence, the organism would have a thermometer, not a clock.
Adaptation to pollution affects key circadian genes
To determine whether clock disruption is a trade-off to pollutant adaptation, we first had to establish that Daphnia is governed by a circadian clock. To do this, we identified genes in Daphnia that are similar to two genes, known as period and clock, in an organism that serves as a circadian model system: Drosophila melanogaster, the common fruit fly.
We tracked the levels of period and clock in Daphnia, keeping the organisms in constant darkness to ensure that a light stimulus did not affect these levels. Our data showed that the levels of period and clock varied over time with a 24-hour rhythm – a clear indication that Daphnia have a functional circadian clock.
We also tracked the same genes in populations of Daphnia that had adapted to increased salinity. Much to my surprise, we discovered that the daily variation of period and clock levels deteriorated directly with the level of salinity the Daphniawere adapted to. In other words, as Daphnia adapted to higher salinity levels, they showed less variation in the levels of period and clock over the day. This demonstrated that Daphnia’s clock is indeed affected by pollutant exposure.
Daphnia and other plankton are among the most abundant organisms on Earth and play critical ecological roles.
We currently don’t understand what causes this effect, but the relationship between salinity levels and decreased variation in the levels of period and clock offers a clue. We know that exposure to pollutants causes Daphnia to undergo epigenetic regulation – chemical changes that affect the function of their genes, without altering their DNA. And epigenetic changes often show a gradual response, becoming more pronounced as the causal factor increases. Therefore, it is likely that high salinity is inducing chemical changes through these epigenetic mechanisms in Daphnia to suppress the function of its circadian clock.
The broad effects of circadian clock disruptions
We know that environmental conditions can affect what the clock regulates in many species. For example, changing the sugar that the fungus Neurospora crassa grows on changes which behaviors the clock regulates. But to our knowledge, this study is the first to show that genes of an organism’s core clock can be directly impacted by adapting to an environmental contaminant. Our finding suggests that just as the gears of a mechanical clock can rust over time, the circadian clock can be permanently impacted by environmental exposure.
This research has important implications. First, if Daphnia’s circadian clock regulates its participation in the diel vertical migration, then disrupting the clock could mean that Daphnia do not migrate in the water column. Daphnia are key consumers of algae and a food source for many fish, so disrupting their circadian rhythms could affect entire ecosystems.
Second, our findings indicate that environmental pollution may have broader effects on humans than previously understood. The genes and processes in Daphnia’s clock are very similar to those that regulate the clock in humans. Our circadian rhythms control genes that create cellular oscillations affecting cell function, division and growth, along with physiological parameters such as body temperature and immune responses.
We are continuing our work by studying how the disruption of Daphnia’s clock affects its participation in the diel vertical migration. We are also working to determine the underlying causes of these changes, to establish whether and how this could happen in the human brain. The impacts we have found in Daphnia show that even a simple substance such as salt can have extremely complex effects on living organisms.
(Dr. Mercola) More attention than ever is being put on your gut health, and understandably so because 70 to 80 percent of your immune function resides within your gastrointestinal tract. As such, optimizing your gut microbiome is a worthwhile pursuit that will have far-reaching effects on your physical health and emotional well-being.
A first important step toward balancing your gut flora is to eliminate sugar from your diet, especially sugars found in processed foods. Then, you will want to begin eating fermented foods — some examples are kefir, kimchi, natto, sauerkraut and raw grass fed yogurt. A healthy diet, including the consumption of prebiotic foods, influences your health because it helps create an optimal environment for beneficial gut bacteria, while decreasing pathogenic or disease-causing bacteria, fungi and yeast.
Taking a probiotic or sporebiotic supplement can also be beneficial, especially during and following antibiotic treatment, to restore and promote a healthy microbiome. Many don’t realize your gut bacteria can influence your behavior and gene expression. Gut bacteria have also been shown to play a role with respect to autism, diabetes and obesity.
Mounting scientific evidence continues to suggest a large component of nutrition centers on nourishing the health-promoting bacteria in your body. In doing so, you can keep harmful microbes in check, manage your weight and protect against chronic disease. Given its importance to your overall health, now is the time to “go with your gut!”
What Is Your Gut Microbiome and What Does It Affect?
Research has determined about 100 trillion bacteria comprise your body’s microbiome. However, it is far greater than that as for every bacterium there are at least 10 viruses and fungi living on or inside your body, helping with life-sustaining functions that would not be possible without them. Your microbiome takes shape very early in life.
In fact, if you were delivered via a vaginal birth, you were coated with your mother’s microbes as you passed through the birth canal. More microbes were passed along during breastfeeding, as breast milk contains many gut-nurturing properties.
During the early years, your family, dietary and environmental exposures contributed to your microbiome in ways that have and will continue to influence your lifelong health. Your microbiome is made up of several distinct areas, including your eyes, genitals, mouth and skin, as well as your intestines, which comprise your gut microbiome. Everyday activities such as brushing your teeth, eating, kissing someone or handling a family pet affect your microbiome. Notably, your gut microbiome has been shown to play a role in:
•Autism: Establishment of normal gut flora in the first few weeks of life is vital to your baby’s immune system. Babies with abnormal gut flora have compromised immune systems and are particularly at risk for developing ADHD, autism and learning disabilities, particularly if they are vaccinated while their gut flora is imbalanced.
•Behavior: A study published in Neurogastroenterology and Motility1 found mice lacking in gut bacteria behave differently from normal mice. Their altered behavior was construed as “high-risk” and was accompanied by neurochemical changes in the brain. It is widely known that your gut serves as your second brain, producing more of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is known to have a positive influence on your mood, than your brain does.
•Diabetes: According to a Danish study,2 the bacterial population in diabetic guts differs from those of nondiabetics. According to researchers, Type 2 diabetes in humans is linked to compositional changes in intestinal microbiota, highlighting the link between metabolic diseases and bacterial populations in the gut.
•Gene expression: Your gut health has been shown to be a very powerful variable of epigenetics, a cutting-edge field of medicine highlighting the role your lifestyle plays with respect to genetic expression. As noted in ScienceDaily:3
“New research is helping to tease out the mechanics of how the gut microbiome communicates with the cells of its host to switch genes on and off. … the study4 … reveals how the metabolites produced by the bacteria in the stomach chemically communicate with cells, including cells far beyond the colon, to dictate gene expression and health in its host.”
•Obesity: Because probiotics may help fight obesity, optimizing your gut flora is an important consideration if you’re struggling to lose weight.
The Importance of Fermented Foods
I often mention the value of fermented foods in helping to “heal and seal” your gut as a means of boosting your health and/or reversing disease. As demonstrated in the video above, culturing vegetables is easy and inexpensive. You can also make your own homemade yogurt. Other examples of fermented foods include kefir, kimchi, natto and sauerkraut. These foods are not only packed with good bacteria, but also are associated with the following health benefits:
•Nutrient rich: Some fermented foods are outstanding sources of essential nutrients such as vitamin K2, which helps prevent osteoporosis and atherosclerosis, also known as hardening of the arteries. Cheese curd is an excellent source of both probiotics and vitamin K2, as are certain fermented foods like natto or vegetables fermented at home using a starter culture of vitamin K2-producing bacteria. Fermented foods also produce many B vitamins.
•Immune system booster: Because up to 80 percent of your immune system is located in your gut, probiotics play a crucial role in keeping your digestive tract operating smoothly. A healthy gut is your first defense against disease and a major factor in helping you maintain optimal health and well-being.
•Powerful detoxifier: Fermented foods are some of the best chelators available. The beneficial bacteria in these foods are highly potent detoxifiers, capable of drawing out a range of toxins and heavy metals from your bloodstream, which are then eliminated through your kidneys.
•Cost-effective: Adding a small amount of fermented food to each meal is cost-effective because it contains 100 times the probiotics of the average supplement. Given that a high-quality probiotic is expensive, you can culture vegetables for a fraction of the cost.
•Natural variety of microflora: If you vary the types of fermented and cultured foods you eat, you’ll benefit from a much wider variety of beneficial bacteria than you could ever receive in supplement form.
Eating Prebiotic Foods Can Help Nourish Your Gut
You can positively impact your friendly gut bacteria by providing them with the nutrients they need to flourish in the form of prebiotics. Prebiotics are found primarily in fiber-rich foods, which is perfect because your good gut bacteria thrive on indigestible fiber. Inulin is one type of water-soluble fiber found in asparagus, garlic, leeks and onions that helps nourish your beneficial gut bacteria.
In lab research5 involving young rats, dietary prebiotics were found to have a significant effect on rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep cycles, which may positively affect your sleep quality. Researchers studying the effect of prebiotics on gut health and REM sleep gave the test animals a diet rich in prebiotics beginning at 3 weeks old, and found:
Rats eating prebiotics had an increase in beneficial gut bacteria as compared to the control group6
As friendly bacteria metabolize prebiotic fiber, they not only grow and multiply, but also excrete a metabolite beneficial to brain health7
The group eating a prebiotic-rich diet spent more time in restful and restorative NREM sleep than those eating the control diet
Rats eating prebiotic foods spent more time in REM sleep after being stressed, which is important for promoting recovery8
The study authors said:9“Given that sufficient NREM sleep and proper nutrition can impact brain development and function, and that sleep problems are common in early life, it is possible that a diet rich in prebiotics started in early life could help improve sleep, support the gut microbiota and promote optimal brain/psychological health.” The following whole foods help add prebiotic fiber to your diet and improve the health of your microbiome, thus improving your overall health:10,11,12
While I highly recommend you obtain most of your nutrients from real food, probiotic supplements can be helpful, especially if you are unable to eat fermented foods. That said, for probiotics to do their job, you need to optimize the conditions where these “good” bacteria will flourish.
The first step is to nourish your microbiome with real food. If you continue to eat a highly processed diet and foods containing added sugars, you’ll only be feeding the potentially pathogenic bacteria in your gut. Pathogenic disease-causing microbes simply love sugar!
On the other hand, these microbes will not thrive in the presence of fiber-rich foods or those containing complex carbohydrates, healthy fats and proteins. When you focus on eating whole, natural foods, you’re supporting the growth of your beneficial gut bacteria. Research suggests the benefits of probiotics aren’t limited to your gut, but also affect your brain.
This is the case because your gut is connected to your brain via what’s called the gut-brain axis, which means whatever affects your gastrointestinal tract affects your brain, and vice versa.
As such, when your gut microbiome is unbalanced, it can affect your immune system, mental health, mood and even your brain function. Probiotics have even been shown to help reduce the symptoms of depression. Factors to look for when trying to identify a high-quality probiotic supplement include:
Make sure it’s a reputable, non-GMO brand, manufactured according to current Good Manufacturing Practices
Look for a potency count (colony forming units or CFUs) of 50 billion or higher
Check the shelf life of the CFUs and avoid capsules only declaring CFUs at the “time of manufacture”
Choose a product containing multiple species of bacteria; products containing species of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria are generally recommended
Spore-based probiotics, or sporebiotics, are an excellent complement to regular probiotics. They are part of a group of derivatives of the microbe called bacillus. This genus has hundreds of subspecies, the most important of which is bacillus subtilis. Essentially, sporebiotics consist of the cell wall of bacillus spores, and they are a primary tool to boost your immune tolerance.
Because sporebiotics do not contain any live bacillus strains, only its spores — the protective shell around the DNA and the working mechanism of that DNA — they are unaffected by antibiotics.
Antibiotics, as you may know, indiscriminately kill your gut bacteria, both good and bad. This is why secondary infections and lowered immune function are common side effects of taking antibiotics. Chronic low-dose exposure to antibiotics through your food also takes a toll on your gut microbiome, which can result in chronic ill health and increased risk of drug resistance.
If you are wondering how antibiotics get into your food, you may not realize about 80 percent of the antibiotics sold in the U.S. are used in food production, including antibiotics given to farm animals living in concentrated animal feeding operations. Sporebiotics can more effectively help reestablish your gut microbiome since they’re not being destroyed by antibiotics.
If you are not sure sporebiotics could benefit you, be advised many acidophilus products have the drawback of not being able to survive the passage through your stomach acid, especially when taken on an empty stomach.
Poor-quality probiotics may not even be alive by the time you take them, which means you’ll receive little to no benefit. Spores, on the other hand, once established in your gut, help improve your intestinal barrier function. Your gut’s mucosal barrier determines which nutrients are absorbed and which are to be excreted.
The intestinal barrier also influences your immune function, and spores increase your immune tolerance, which means they help repair damage in your intestinal barrier, such as that caused by leaky gut. My longtime mentor Dr. Dietrich Klinghardt, who also holds a Ph.D., and founder of the Klinghardt Academy in Washington (state), has used sporebiotics for the successful treatment of food intolerances for those suffering from ALS, autism, Lyme disease, multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease.
Whatever approach you take — eliminating sugars, adding prebiotic foods, eating fermented foods, taking probiotics or sporebiotics, or all of the above — I encourage you to begin optimizing your gut. A healthy gut will boost your immunity, help your body resist disease and positively affect your health and well-being. Now is the time to “go with your gut!”
(Natural Blaze) Inflammation is considered one of the most formidable causes of disease! Quell the pain and inflammation with your own DIY supplement superfood. Try these easy and sweet 2-ingredient turmeric bombs.
We would like to offer one important suggestion! If you can stomach it – add as much black pepper as possible.
Turmeric is known to fight pain, high blood sugar/blood pressure, inflammation, candida and so much more! But it’s difficult to get enough in your diet unless you take supplements – and those can be pricey.
Abstract word cloud for Vitamin B12 with related tags and terms
(Dr. Mercola) Even when you eat a balanced, whole-food diet similar to the one presented in my nutrition plan, you may still fail to get the right balance of vitamins and minerals your body needs for optimal health. Because many factors contribute to your body’s ability to derive nutrients from the food you consume, you may eat a healthy diet and still lack proper nutrition.
Changes in animal feed, climate, farming and food-processing methods, soil conditions, water quality and weather patterns, as well as increased use of genetic engineering and toxic pesticides, can have a negative effect on the quality of food available.
Your age, genetics and health conditions such as digestive issues also impact your body’s ability to absorb nutrients from your food. Often, vitamin and mineral deficiencies can be difficult to identify because you may not develop symptoms until the deficiency has become quite pronounced.
Below, I comment on 10 of the most common nutrient deficiencies — ranging from vitamin A to zinc. As you review the list, take note of any deficiency symptoms that may apply to your current situation. Then, be sure to address any area of concern. In doing so, you will continue to protect and optimize your health.
The Harvard School of Public Health suggests an estimated 1 billion people worldwide have low vitamin D levels, with deficiencies noted across all age and ethnic groups.1 You are at risk of missing out on vitamin D from natural sun exposure if you spend most of your time indoors, use topical sunscreens or wear long clothing for religious reasons. The signs and symptoms of vitamin D deficiencyinclude:
Achy or broken bones
Because vitamin D helps your body absorb calcium, it plays a role in your bone health. Studies involving older adults have associated low vitamin D levels with an increased risk of falls and fractures.2
Age 50 or older
At age 50, your kidneys may become less effective at metabolizing inactive vitamin D into its active form. At age 70 and beyond, your body will produce about one-third less vitamin D through sun exposure than it did at younger ages.
Body mass index > 30
Because vitamin D is fat soluble, when your fat cells uptake it, less is available for use elsewhere in your body.3 For this reason, some experts recommend you increase your intake of vitamin D if you are obese.
Dark skin
Melanin, which determines your degree of skin pigmentation and protects your body from harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV), impairs your skin’s ability to produce vitamin D from sunlight. If you have darker skin, your body may need up to 10 times more sun exposure to produce adequate vitamin D as compared to a person who has lighter skin.
Feeling depressed or consistently having low energy
Thanks to the brain hormone serotonin, your mood automatically elevates when you are in the sun. Researchers examining the effects of vitamin D on the moods of 80 elderly patients found the ones with the lowest vitamin D levels were 11 times more likely to suffer from depression.4
Frequent colds and flu
A study done in Japan indicated schoolchildren taking 1,200 units of vitamin D per day during winter reduced their risk of contracting the flu by about 40 percent.5
Head sweating
One of the classic signs of vitamin D deficiency is a sweaty head. Excessive sweating in newborns due to neuromuscular irritability is still described as a common, early symptom of vitamin D deficiency.6
If you are experiencing any of these symptoms, get your vitamin D level tested immediately. Even if you are in good health, I recommend you have your level tested twice a year. The optimal vitamin D level for general health ranges between 40 to 60 nanograms per milliliter (ng/ml). The ideal way to raise your vitamin D is by regularly and sensibly exposing large amounts of your skin, such as your arms, back, chest and legs, to sunshine. Getting outdoors at or around solar noon is the best time to soak up the sun.
If for whatever reason you cannot get outdoors, or not frequently enough to receive sufficient UV exposure, consider taking an oral vitamin D3 supplement along with vitamin K2 and magnesium. The only way to determine your ideal maintenance dose of vitamin D is by measuring your blood level. As a general guideline, vitamin D experts recommend 4,000 IUs per day for adults, but that level applies only if you are already in the therapeutic range. If your levels are low, you may need to start with 8,000 IUs or more per day.
If you regularly consume fast food and other highly processed foods, you probably overconsume inflammatory omega-6 fats. Such high consumption of omega-6s very likely means you may not be consuming enough of the healthier omega-3 fats. Processed foods — everything from frozen meals to salad dressings — are generally loaded with omega-6s, due to the vegetable oils used to make them.
Check labels carefully and do your best to avoid products containing corn, cottonseed, soybean, safflower and sunflower oils. If you are a regular consumer of fast food, be advised most of it is prepared with these same oils. Your recommended omega-6 to omega-3 balance should be close to a 1-to-1 ratio. However, because omega-6s are overabundant in the typical American diet, your ratio may be around 20-to-1, or as high as 50-to-1! It all depends on your eating habits.
Very often, when omega-6s predominate your diet, you will almost always suffer from inflammation and higher production of body fat. I suspect the high incidence of cancer, diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, obesity and premature aging noticeable worldwide may have its roots in the chronic inflammation resulting from this profound omega-3-to-omega-6 mismatch.
Omega-3s are anti-inflammatory and vital for supporting your brain function, joints, skin and vision, as well as your heart.7,8,9 They are derived from both plant and animal sources:
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA): found in plant sources such as chia, flaxseeds, hemp and walnuts
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): found in animal sources such as anchovies, salmon and sardines, as well as fish oil supplements; alternatives to fish oil include algae and my personal favorite, krill oil
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA): also found in animal sources such as fish and fish oil, because wherever you find DHA, EPA is also there
I recommend an animal-based omega-3 because most of its cellular health benefits are linked to EPA and DHA, not the plant-based ALA. Although plant-based omega-3s are beneficial, and ideally you need both sources of omega-3, your focus should mainly be on the animal-based variety. To learn more about the critical differences between plant- and animal-based omega-3, and why they are not interchangeable, please see “The Critical Differences Between Omega-3 Fats From Plants and Marine Animals.”
In terms of supplementation, I believe krill oil is superior to fish oil. The omega-3 in krill is attached to phospholipids, which increase its absorption. Furthermore, compared to fish oil, krill oil contains almost 50 times more astaxanthin, a potent antioxidant that helps prevent omega-3s from oxidizing before they can be integrated into your cellular tissues. I cannot stress enough the importance of getting your omega-3 level tested.
Because magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in your body, a deficiency can wreak havoc on your health. The fact researchers10 have detected more than 3,750 magnesium-binding sites on human proteins should give you a sense of how important this mineral is for your body’s optimal functioning. Your body needs magnesium for:
Activating muscles and nerves
Creating energy in your body by activating adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Helping digest proteins, carbohydrates and fats
Serving as a building block for RNA and DNA synthesis
Acting as a precursor for neurotransmitters like serotonin
Dietary sources of magnesium include avocados, Brazil nuts, brown rice, cashews, dark leafy greens like spinach and Swiss chard, oily fish, raw cacao, seaweed and seeds. Since there is no simple routine blood test to determine your magnesium level, it is best to get a magnesium RBC test, while also carefully evaluating and tracking your symptoms. You may be suffering from magnesium insufficiency if you experience:
Constipation
Eye twitches, muscle spasms — especially “charley horses” or spasms in your calf muscle that occur when you stretch your legs, numbness or tingling in your extremities and seizures
Headaches and/or migraines
High blood pressure, heart arrhythmias and/or coronary spasms
Low energy, fatigue and/or loss of appetite
A few years ago, I interviewed Dr. Carolyn Dean, who has been studying magnesium for nearly 20 years. In her book, “The Magnesium Miracle,” Dean lists 100 factors to help you determine if you might be deficient. She also writes a blog, and you may find her post entitled “Gauging Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms” to be helpful.11 Check out the short video below by Dean to learn more about why your body can’t live without magnesium.
Iodine is an essential mineral found in every one of your organs and tissues. Your body needs iodine for normal thyroid function, including the production of thyroid hormones, which support brain development, bone maintenance, growth and metabolism. Nearly one-third of the world’s population is iodine deficient.12 Severe iodine deficiency can affect your child’s brain function and IQ. The most common symptoms you are not getting enough iodine include:
Dry mouth, dry skin and lack of sweating
Enlarged thyroid gland, also known as goiter, which contributes to a variety of cancers, including esophageal, breast, ovarian and thyroid
Increased heart rate
Shortness of breath
Weight gain
Dietary sources of iodine include eggs, fish, raw milk, spirulina and sea vegetables such as kelp, kombu, nori and wakame. If you take an iodine supplement, be aware of the potentially serious risks associated with taking too much iodine. As a general rule, I do not advise taking large doses of iodine supplements like Iodora or Lugol’s long term.
In the video below, Dr. Jorge Flechas, a family physician from North Carolina who specializes in iodine therapy for thyroid and breast disorders, provides an informative overview of your thyroid, the incidence of thyroid problems and the importance of intaking sufficient iodine.
While you may think about it mainly during cold and flu season, zinc is an essential mineral found throughout your organs, tissues and bodily fluids. Moreover, after iron, zinc is the second most abundant trace mineral in your body. Because zinc is vital to many biological processes, you may not realize your body does not store zinc. Instead, you must intake it daily through the foods you eat or a high-quality supplement. Zinc supports your body’s critical processes such as:
Blood clotting
Immune function
Smell, taste and vision
Cell division
Thyroid health
Wound healing
At least 2 billion people worldwide are thought to be zinc deficient, including about 12 percent of the U.S. population and as much as 40 percent of the elderly.13 Part of the deficit likely results from soil depletion due to conventional farming methods, as well as the use of toxic pesticides such as Roundup. Beyond the soil concerns, many simply do not eat enough zinc-rich foods, the mineral is often poorly absorbed, levels are infrequently checked and testing methods are often inaccurate.
Dietary sources of zinc include dairy products, nuts, red meat and seafood. Plant sources such as asparagus, beans, green peas and spinach also contain zinc, but it is more easily absorbed from meat and animal proteins.
If you are an alcoholic or vegetarian, are pregnant or lactating, or have a digestive disorder or sickle cell disease, you are more likely to have a zinc deficiency. Even if you consider yourself to be a healthy person, you may not be eating enough zinc-rich foods on a daily basis to achieve optimal levels of this essential nutrient.
In the video above, I discuss the importance of zinc to your health, the signs of zinc deficiency and how you may improve your zinc levels through your dietary choices. Vegetarians have a particular challenge as phytic acid in grains compete with the absorption of zinc and other nutrients, which doesn’t occur in meat and dairy sources of zinc.
If you have symptoms of a zinc deficiency and choose to use a supplement, make sure it’s from a reputable company using best-practice, quality assurance methods. Independent verification of the raw materials is vital to confirm quality and assure it is free of lead and other heavy metals. The supplement should contain several different types of zinc, such as gluconate, citrate and chelate. Unless your clinician recommends otherwise, don’t go above 40 mg per day.
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) is known as the energy vitamin, and you need it for blood formation, DNA synthesis, energy production and myelin formation. You may be deficient in vitamin B12 if you are not eating enough of the foods containing it, or your body lacks the ability to absorb it properly.
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, nearly 40 percent of the American population may have marginal vitamin B12 status14— not low enough to qualify as deficiency, but low enough to where certain neurological symptoms may start to appear. Warning signs of a B12 deficiency are slow to appear, so you may be quite deficient by the time you recognize the symptoms, which include:
Apathy
Memory problems and/or “mental fog”
Muscle weakness
Fatigue
Mood swings
Tingling in the extremities
Vitamin B12 is present in its natural form only in animal sources of food, such as:
Grass fed beef and beef liver
Lamb
Venison
Organic pastured eggs and poultry
Seafood such as salmon, scallops, shrimp and snapper
If you are a strict vegetarian or vegan, you are at increased risk of B12 deficiency. While you can get some B12 from coconut oil, fortified coconut milk and nutritional yeast, you may need to take a daily supplement. Chronic long-term B12 deficiency can lead to serious conditions such as dementia, depression and fertility problems.
Most B12 supplements sold today are a waste of your money because B12 does not absorb well. Your best option is to supplement with a B12 spray, which I think is better than receiving painful B12 shots from your doctor. Whether you choose animal foods or a high-quality spray, if you are a vegan, you should consider increasing your consumption of B12 to avoid future health problems.
Vitamin E is an important fat-soluble vitamin and antioxidant designed to combat inflammation and make red blood cells. It also helps your body use vitamin K, which is important for heart health. Six billion people worldwide and 75 to 90 percent of Americans are deficient in vitamin E.15 If you are among them, you are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease, cognitive deterioration and immune dysfunction.
To achieve an optimal level, you need at least 50 IUs of vitamin E daily. The recommended dietary allowance for anyone 14 years or older is 15 milligrams (mg) per day. Vitamin E is well-known for protecting against free radical damage and the effects of aging. It is actually a family of at least eight fat-soluble antioxidant compounds, divided into two main categories:
Tocopherols, which are considered the “true” vitamin E
Tocotrienols, each of which has subfamilies of four different forms
Vitamin E can easily be obtained from a healthy diet, and high amounts of it are found in three general categories of foods:
Leafy greens like spinach
High-fat foods such as nuts, seeds, fatty fish and seafood, including sardines and shrimp
Oil-rich, high-fat plants such as avocados and olives
Most of these foods are best eaten raw because cooking will destroy some of the nutrients. Obvious exceptions exist of course — do not eat raw shrimp, for example. If you must use a supplement, choose a full-spectrum vitamin E containing mixed natural tocopherols and tocotrienols. Avoid the synthetic form. Natural vitamin E is always listed as the “d-” form: d-alpha-tocopherol, d-beta-tocopherol, etc. Synthetic versions are listed as “dl-” forms.
Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that is well-known for its role in blood clotting. However, there are two different kinds of vitamin K,16each providing its own set of health benefits. Vitamin K1 is primarily responsible for blood clotting whereas vitamin K2 works synergistically with calcium, magnesium and vitamin D to impart a number of important health benefits.
Vitamin K2 also plays a crucial role in bone health,17 and may be critical for the prevention of osteoporosis (brittle bones). Osteocalcin is a protein produced by your osteoblasts (cells responsible for bone formation), and is utilized within the bone as an integral part of the bone-forming process. However, osteocalcin must be “carboxylated” before it can be effective. Vitamin K functions as a cofactor for the enzyme that catalyzes the carboxylation of osteocalcin.
If you do not have sufficient amounts of vitamin K2, you run the risk of both brittle bones and calcification in your soft tissues. In other words, vitamin K2 is necessary to keep your bones strong and your soft tissues pliable. A number of Japanese trials have shown that vitamin K2 completely reverses bone loss and in some cases even increases bone mass in people with osteoporosis.18
The pooled evidence of seven Japanese trials also show that vitamin K2 supplementation produces a 60 percent reduction in vertebral fractures and an 80 percent reduction in hip and other non-vertebral fractures.19 One Chinese meta-analysis20 of 19 randomized controlled trials found that vitamin K2 supplementation significantly improved vertebral bone density in postmenopausal women and reduced the risk of bone fractures.
Another three-year-long placebo-controlled study21 done in the Netherlands found that postmenopausal women taking 180 mcg of MK-7 per day increased their bone strength and saw a decrease in the rate of age-related bone mineral decline and reduced loss of bone density, compared to those taking a placebo. The following graphic, from a 2014 research paper22 on vitamin K2, illustrates the dual effect of vitamin K on bone and vascular health.
Vitamin K2 is found primarily in animal-based foods (MK-4) and fermented foods (MK-7). However, when it comes to MK-7, it’s important to realize that not all bacteria make K2, so only certain fermented foods will contain it. Grain fed animals will also produce far lower amounts of K2, and are best avoided for other reasons. Only grass fed animals will develop naturally high K2 levels.
For these reasons, most commercial yogurts are virtually devoid of vitamin K2, and while certain types of cheeses, such as Gouda, brie and Edam are high in K2, others are not. One of the best ways to get plenty of vitamin K2 from your diet it is to regularly eat home-fermented vegetables made with a special starter culture designed with bacterial strains that produce vitamin K2.
You can get up to 500 mcg of vitamin K2 in a 2-ounce serving of fermented vegetables using such a starter culture, which is a clinically therapeutic dose. This is also one of your most economical alternatives.
Selenium serves two very important and interrelated roles:
At the cellular level, selenium is an active component of glutathione peroxidase, an enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to water. Glutathione peroxidase has potent antioxidant properties, and serves as a first line of defense against build-up of harmful free radicals in your cells.
Selenium also plays an important role in the prevention of cancer. One of the reasons people get cancer is because of excessive free radical production. By reducing free radicals, selenium helps reduce your risk of cancer.
If you like Brazil nuts, eating about two to three of them per day will typically be sufficient. If you opt for a supplement, make sure to get the correct form. What you’re looking for is the high-selenium yeast form, the scientifically tested and most recommended version.
Nearly half of American adults and teens are at risk for insufficiency or deficiency of vitamin A.23 Your body needs a daily dose of this fat-soluble vitamin to maintain healthy bones, cell membranes, immune function, skin, teeth and vision. Vitamins A and D work in tandem, and there’s evidence suggesting that without vitamin D, vitamin A can be ineffective or even toxic.
On the other hand, if you’re deficient in vitamin A, vitamin D cannot function properly either, so a balance of these two vitamins is essential to good health. That said, because we do not yet know the optimal ratios between these two vitamins, balancing them well through supplementation can be challenging. For that reason, if you are able, it’s best to intake vitamins A and D from food and sun exposure, rather than supplements.
The best source of vitamin A your body can actually use is animal products such as fish, grass fed meat, liver and pastured poultry, as well as raw, organic dairy products like butter. These foods contain retinol, preformed vitamin A that your body can easily use. You will find it difficult to get sufficient amounts of vitamin A from beta-carotene, a provitamin A found in plant foods like broccoli, cantaloupe, carrots, squash and sweet potatoes.
While your body can readily use the retinol form of vitamin A, it must convert provitamin A (carotenoids) into bioavailable retinol. If you’re in excellent health, this should not pose a major problem; however, factors such as alcohol use, digestive problems and genetics can affect your body’s ability to absorb carotenoids and convert them into retinol. Medical conditions that interfere with the digestion of fat, including Crohn’s disease, cystic fibrosis and gallbladder and liver disease also affect your body’s ability to convert vitamin A.
A number of studies have raised warnings about vitamin A supplementation; indicating high doses may lead to toxicity, and may raise your risk of cancer, heart disease and all-cause mortality. Be particularly cautious with retinol or retinoic acid supplements, as these fat-soluble forms pose a greater risk of toxicity. Strictly avoid all synthetic versions.
We are continuing our work by studying how the disruption of Daphnia’s clock affects its participation in the diel vertical migration. We are also working to determine the underlying causes of these changes, to establish whether and how this could happen in the human brain. The impacts we have found in Daphnia show that even a simple substance such as salt can have extremely complex effects on living organisms.
